Language, or should we say, the combination of words and sounds, is a myth. Where did it come from? Who were the creators? Why we humans look alike, but our languages are various?fficeffice" />

   Here the legend goes. It is said, in prehistoric ages, there existed a great tribe. Today we call it Indo-European. According to the philologists, the original home Indo-European family lay the mainland of Europe and the Western part of Asia. It can be traced that the living condition for the big family was very hard, i.e. cold, because there are many words describing trees or animals living in the cold zones in the language of branches split from the family, and the words for “ winter” and “snow”. With the immigration of the people, the great tribe split. Accordingly, the language fall into 11 principle groupsU> Indian, Iranian, Armenian( 亚美尼亚, as ancient country in western Asia, now divided between Armenia, Turkey, Iran), Italic, Balto-Slavic (Baltic 波罗地海), Germanic( the origin of Old English), Celtic, Hittite( Anatolia, Syria 1900-1200 B.C., cuneform sylabbary), Tocharian( spoken in the NE tarim basin of western China c. 500-800A.D.)

   The British Isles has her inhabitants long before the record of history, since Paleolithic Age, 50,000years according to more moderate estimates, 250,000 in the opinion of some. The first people in England about whose language we have definite knowledge are the Celts. Celts was probably the first Indo-European tongue to be spoken in England. The other language appeared. It was Latin. In the summer of 55 B.C., Julius Caesar, having completed the conquest of Gaul, invaded Briton, and conquered it. Briton became one of Roman provinces for a very long time. Since then, till 410 A.D., the last of the Roman legions officially withdrawn from the island.

  About the year 449, as traditionally stated, began the invasion of Britain by certain Germanic tribes, the founders of the English nation.

  For more than a hundred years bands of conquerors an settlers migrated from their continental homes in the region of Denmark and the Low countries and established themselves in the south and east of the island, gradually extending the area they occupied until it included all but the highlands in the west and north.

731, Bede, “ Ecclesiastical History of the English People”, tells us that the Germanic tribes that conquered England were the Jutes( Danish peninsula in North), Saxons( Rhine), and Angles( South, from which the word English came)

The periods in the history of English

   The period from 450 to 1150 is know as Old English. It is sometimes described as the period of full inflections( 变音)， because during most of this period the endings of the noun, the adjective and the verb are preserved more or less unimpaired.

   From 1150 to 1500 the language is known as Middle English. During this period the inflections, which had begun to break down toward the end of the OE period, become greatly reduced, and it is consequently known as the period of leveled inflections.

  The language since 1500 is called Modern English. By the time we reach this stage in the development a large part of the original inflectional system has disappeared entirely, and we therefore speak of it as the period of lost inflections.

Foreign influences on OE

   The language that was described in the preceding chapter was not merely the product of the dialects brought to England by the Jutes, Saxons and Angels. There formed its basis, the sole basis of its grammar and the source of by far the largest part of its vocabulary. But other elememts entered into it. In the course of the first 700 years of its existence in England it was brought into contact with at least three other languages of the Celts, the Romans and the Scandinavians.

  The Celts. The influence of Celtic on OE is weak, because of the Celt’s submerged position, but some old usages remain, like “ London”, “ Avon”, “Exe”, “Esk”, “Usk”, “ Dover” and “Wye”, there are river or water names.

  The Latin: It has great influence on OE. First, through the period of Roman Empire, with Celtic transmission. Of course, the broad territory of Roman Empire also brought many new gadgets to the British Isles. Second, with the spread of Christianity in Britain, as a result, some 450 Latin words appear in English writings before the lose of the OE period.

Religious: abbot, alms, altar, bishop, minster, noon, organ, temple

Living stuff: cap, sock, silk, aloes(芦荟)， balsam, fennel (茴香)， hyssop (海索草)， lily, myrrh, rue（芸香），savory（香味薄荷）

  The Scandinavian( the Viking age) from mid of the 8^th AD- the 11^th AD

  Near the end of the OE period, English underwent a third foreign influence, the Scandianvian, mostly from the Danes. The plunder of the savages on Britain began in about 77AD. They burnt villages and robbed monasteries. In the 11^th century, Cnut, King of Denmark, obtained the throne of England, conquered Norway, and from his English capital ruled the greater part of the Scandinavian world.

   Of course, the Danes were strongly resisted by the local kings. In 878 AD The Treaty of Wedmore ( near Glastenbury) was signed by Alfred ( King of England) and the Guthrum ( King of Denmark), with the great victory of Alfred. They got a truce and the Danes were baptized to Christianity. The last term is very important, because it would help to pave the way for the ultimate fusion of the two groups. From 878-1042, it was a period of political adjustment and assimilation( melting). In 937, England won a brilliant victory in the battle of Brunanburch over a combined force of Danes and Scots. By the middle of the century a large part of eastern England, though still strongly Danish in blood and custom, was once more under English rule. In the following years, wars went on, sometimes the Englishmen won, sometimes the Danes. With more  and more Danes settled on the Isles, the Anglo-Saxon and the Dane melted with each other, because they were very much alike in civilization, it made the melting went easy. OE brought  ship, shall, fish, sky, skill…… in pronunciation. 

Words: axletree 轴干 band  bank  birth bull gap score  awkward egg glitter nag rake thrive……

The Norman conquest and the Subjection of English, 1066-1200

   The Duke of Normandy conquested England in 1066, and thus, changed the whole course of the English language.

   The name Normandy comes from Norman ( the Northman). They were also from Scandinavian peninsula. They settled in Normandy and accepted French culture. In 1066, when King of England Edward the Confessor died childless, England was again faced with the choice of a successor. Duke William of Normandy was a second cousin to the late king. He actually has no right to claim the throne, but he did. He invaded England in the same year. After winning the battle, a new aristocratic class in England emerged. Actually, they all had the strong background of France. So English became a submerged language since then. ( 1066-1200)

  But during 1200-1500, English was reestablished gradually as the official language in England. The breakthrough took part in the 14^th-15^th century. In the 14^th England won its way back into universal use, and in the 15^th French all but disappeared.

  In 1204, King John lost Normandy. 1280 French King , Decree of Separation, ordered the Nobles in England( having properities both in England and France) only chose one to devote their loylty. So far as it affected the English language, as in other respects as well, the loss of Normandy was wholly advantageous, King and nobles were now force to look upon England as their first concern. English was used in upperclass, monks….Then ,the hundred year’s war(the 14^th-15^th) is probably to be reckoned as one of the causes contributing to the disuse of French.

The Black Death in the 14^th century cause the rise of labor class and middle class( craftsmen, merchants). It lifted the English-speaking part of the population.

1362, English used in court, showing its dominant place as the language of the country

1425, English reigned the writing

SO completed the establishment of English in England.